Crop-Specific PPFD Guide for Indoor and Vertical Farming

This guide helps growers choose target PPFD ranges by crop type and growth stage.

Introduction

Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density (PPFD) is the single most important lighting metric for indoor and vertical farm operators. Measured in micromoles of photons per square meter per second (μmol/m²/s), PPFD quantifies the photon intensity delivered to the plant canopy within the photosynthetically active radiation range of 400–700 nm — the wavelengths plants actually use for photosynthesis.

Unlike lux or lumens, which measure light as the human eye perceives it, PPFD reflects what plants experience. This distinction matters: a light source can appear very bright to us while delivering inadequate photons for plant growth, or vice versa.

Getting PPFD right is not about maximizing output. It is about delivering the correct photon dose for a specific crop, at a specific growth stage, within a specific production environment. Too little PPFD means slow growth, low yield, and poor quality. Too much PPFD beyond a crop’s saturation point wastes electricity, increases heat load, and can trigger visible stress symptoms.

This guide focuses on one practical question: how much PPFD do different crops actually need? It covers leafy greens, herbs, microgreens, strawberries, and fruiting crops, with growth-stage breakdowns, a master reference chart, and guidance on measurement and common mistakes.

For a complete commercial lighting plan, read our Vertical LED Grow Lights Guide for Commercial Vertical Farming to connect PPFD requirements with fixture selection, installation height, lighting uniformity, and crop strategy.

1. What Determines a Plant’s PPFD Requirement?

Several interacting variables determine how much PPFD a crop can use productively. Understanding these factors helps growers move beyond generic light recipes and build lighting programs that match their specific production context.

Crop Type

Plant species have fundamentally different photosynthetic capacities shaped by their evolutionary environments. Low-light crops like lettuce evolved in shaded conditions and saturate at modest PPFD. High-light fruiting crops like tomatoes evolved under open skies and require substantially more photons to drive fruit development.

Growth Stage

A plant’s PPFD tolerance and requirement changes at every stage of development. Seedlings need lower light to avoid stress before root systems are established. Fruiting-stage crops need the highest light levels to support reproductive metabolism. Matching PPFD to growth stage prevents waste and improves plant health.

Photoperiod and DLI

PPFD is an instantaneous measurement, but plants respond to their total daily photon dose — the Daily Light Integral (DLI). DLI = PPFD × Photoperiod (hours) × 3,600 ÷ 1,000,000. A crop at 200 μmol/m²/s for 16 hours receives a higher DLI than the same crop at 200 μmol/m²/s for 12 hours. Extending photoperiod is often more energy-efficient than increasing peak PPFD. For full daily light calculations, see our DLI Guide.

PPFD requirements should also be considered together with Daily Light Integral DLI, especially when adjusting photoperiods and lighting schedules.

CO₂, Temperature, and Airflow

CO₂ concentration has a direct impact on how much PPFD a plant can productively use. At ambient CO₂ (~420 ppm), lettuce may saturate around 250–300 μmol/m²/s. In a CO₂-enriched environment of 1000–1200 ppm, the same crop may use 400+ μmol/m²/s productively. High PPFD also generates heat; without adequate airflow, leaf temperature rises and causes stress. High-PPFD lighting programs only deliver strong returns when CO₂, temperature, and airflow are managed together.

Commercial Production Goals

Production intent shapes the optimal PPFD target:

Faster cycles: Higher PPFD (within crop limits) accelerates biomass accumulation and shortens production time.

Higher yield: Elevated PPFD combined with CO₂ enrichment can push yields beyond standard baselines.

Energy-efficient production: Operating at the lower end of the optimal range reduces electricity costs while meeting quality thresholds.

Quality-focused production: Some crops produce more flavorful, pigment-rich, or nutritionally dense tissue at moderate rather than maximum PPFD.

Disclaimer: All PPFD ranges in this guide should be used as starting targets, not fixed rules. Final values should be adjusted based on cultivar, CO₂ concentration, photoperiod, airflow, canopy temperature, crop density, and measured plant response.

2. PPFD Requirements by Growth Stage

In addition to crop-specific targets, PPFD requirements follow a consistent progression through plant development. The table below provides a universal reference for growers managing multiple crop types or optimizing seedling propagation programs.

These ranges apply broadly across crop categories. Specific values for each crop are detailed in the sections that follow. Note that germination is best managed in darkness or very low light for most species, and that the jump from seedling to vegetative PPFD should be gradual — a 2–3 day transition window reduces light shock and promotes healthy establishment.

3. Recommended PPFD Levels for Leafy Greens

Leafy greens form the commercial foundation of most vertical farming operations. They are fast-cycling, well-suited to multi-tier production systems, and profitable at relatively modest PPFD levels — making them the ideal starting point for new indoor farming ventures.

Lettuce

Lettuce is one of the most extensively studied crops in controlled environment agriculture. Its relatively low light saturation point makes it one of the most energy-efficient indoor crops to produce.

Seedlings: 100–150 μmol/m²/s — sufficient for compact, healthy transplants with minimal stretch.

Production: 150–250 μmol/m²/s — standard commercial range covering most varieties and system types.

High-yield: 250–350 μmol/m²/s with elevated CO₂ may increase head weight and shorten cycle time under controlled conditions.

Tip burn risk increases above 300 μmol/m²/s in systems with poor airflow — maintain active ventilation and consider calcium supplementation when operating at higher light levels.

Is 500 PPFD too much for lettuce? Yes. Lettuce typically saturates around 250–300 μmol/m²/s under ambient CO₂. Running 500 μmol/m²/s without CO₂ enrichment and strong airflow is likely to cause tip burn, increased electricity costs, and no meaningful yield improvement.

Kale

Kale tolerates and benefits from slightly higher PPFD than lettuce, developing deeper color and more robust leaf structure under stronger light.

Recommended range: 200–300 μmol/m²/s for standard production.

Higher-light strategies at 300–400 μmol/m²/s increase anthocyanin content, improving visual quality and nutritional value for premium fresh markets.

Spinach

Spinach prefers moderate light and cooler temperatures. High PPFD combined with warmth can trigger early bolting, reducing marketable yield.

Optimal range: 150–250 μmol/m²/s for most production systems.

Avoid exceeding 300 μmol/m²/s unless temperatures are tightly controlled below 18°C and cultivars are selected for bolt resistance.

Arugula and Asian Greens

Arugula, bok choy, mizuna, tatsoi, and similar Asian greens are fast-growing and forgiving across a moderate PPFD range.

Typical PPFD targets: 150–250 μmol/m²/s for consistent commercial output.

Commercial fast-cycle production: 200–300 μmol/m²/s when turnover speed is prioritized.

Table: PPFD Requirements for Common Leafy Greens

4. Recommended PPFD Levels for Herbs

Culinary herbs represent some of the highest-value crops available to vertical and indoor farms. Most herb species require moderate to high PPFD to produce the essential oil concentrations, leaf density, and flavor intensity that premium buyers expect.

Basil

Basil is a high-light, warm-season herb that performs poorly under low PPFD. Insufficient light causes leggy, flavorless growth. Under optimal conditions, basil produces dense, aromatic foliage rich in essential oils.

Seedlings: 150–200 μmol/m²/s.

Production: 250–400 μmol/m²/s — the commercially effective range for most fresh and processed basil systems.

High-yield: 400–600 μmol/m²/s may improve productivity under controlled conditions when CO₂ enrichment and warm temperatures (24–28°C) are maintained.

Mint

Mint is vigorous and adaptable, performing well across a wide PPFD range. It does not demand the intensity of basil but benefits from consistent moderate light.

Production: 200–300 μmol/m²/s for standard output. High-yield programs up to 300–500 μmol/m²/s are viable in high-technology systems.

Parsley

Parsley is a slow-growing biennial herb. Consistent moderate PPFD encourages the compact growth and deep green color that fresh-market buyers prefer.

Production: 200–300 μmol/m²/s for standard production cycles.

Cilantro

Cilantro bolts readily under heat and excess light. Managing PPFD alongside temperature is essential for extending its productive window.

Production: 200–300 μmol/m²/s with temperatures kept below 22°C to delay premature flowering.

Avoid exceeding 400 μmol/m²/s without CO₂ and cooling, as heat stress accelerates bolting.

Thyme and Oregano

Both herbs evolved in high-light Mediterranean environments. They benefit from elevated PPFD and tolerate drier, warmer conditions better than most culinary herbs.

Production: 250–350 μmol/m²/s for standard crop.

High-light production at 350–500 μmol/m²/s may intensify essential oil concentration, which is desirable for dried herb and extract markets.

Table: Herb PPFD Reference Chart

5. Recommended PPFD Levels for Microgreens

Microgreens are harvested at the cotyledon to first true-leaf stage, typically within 7–14 days of seeding. Their short production cycle and high value per square meter make them one of the most profitable indoor crops — but their PPFD requirements are distinct from mature crops.

Germination Stage

Most microgreen seeds germinate best in darkness or very low light. Exposing newly seeded trays to high PPFD can desiccate emerging radicles and reduce germination uniformity.

Recommended: 0–80 μmol/m²/s or complete darkness for the first 2–4 days.

Blackout domes maintain humidity and darkness during this phase in commercial production.

Post-Germination Growth

Once cotyledons push through the medium and green tissue is visible, light should be introduced gradually and increased to target levels over 24–48 hours.

Typical commercial production PPFD: 120–250 μmol/m²/s, depending on species.

Sunflower, pea shoots, and wheatgrass benefit from the higher end of this range.

Broccoli, radish, and mustard microgreens produce well at 120–180 μmol/m²/s.

Harvest Optimization

A brief PPFD boost to 200–250 μmol/m²/s in the 2–3 days before harvest can increase cotyledon compactness and intensify pigmentation in colored varieties such as red amaranth and purple radish.

Extending photoperiod (16–18 hours) often delivers better DLI outcomes than raising peak PPFD, with lower heat generation.

Energy-efficient strategy: 120–180 μmol/m²/s for most of the cycle, with a final 48-hour boost before harvest.

Table: PPFD Targets for Popular Microgreens

6. Recommended PPFD Levels for Strawberries

Strawberries are among the most commercially exciting opportunities in vertical farming. Their compact growth habit fits multi-tier systems better than tall vine crops, and they command premium pricing in fresh markets. However, they require substantially higher PPFD than leafy greens across all growth stages.

Vegetative Growth

During vegetative establishment, strawberry plants build the root system, crown, and leaf canopy that will later support flowering and fruiting. Moderate PPFD drives this structural development without overstressing young transplants.

Recommended: 150–300 μmol/m²/s. Day-neutral varieties used in vertical farming require consistent light year-round regardless of season.

Flowering Stage

Insufficient light during flowering results in poor fruit set, hollow berries, and irregular shapes. PPFD should increase as flower buds appear.

Recommended: 200–400 μmol/m²/s. Supplemental red spectrum during the flowering window has been reported to improve flower set rates in some cultivars.

Fruiting Stage

Fruit development is metabolically demanding. Photosynthates produced during this period directly determine fruit size, sugar (Brix) content, and total yield.

Recommended: 350–450 μmol/m²/s for standard commercial fruiting.

High-yield: Some production systems operate at 400–500 μmol/m²/s with CO₂ enrichment to maximize Brix and fruit weight under controlled conditions.

Increasing Yield Through Higher PPFD

Research in controlled environment strawberry production has demonstrated correlations between PPFD and yield quality, particularly in combination with CO₂ enrichment. Very high PPFD strategies (450–700 μmol/m²/s) may increase productivity in some high-technology production systems when CO₂, temperature, humidity, and nutrition are properly managed. Return on investment should be evaluated against increased electricity and CO₂ costs before committing to high-intensity programs.

Table: Strawberry PPFD Targets by Growth Stage

7. Recommended PPFD Levels for Fruiting Crops

Fruiting crops such as tomatoes, cucumbers, and peppers require the highest PPFD of any commercially viable indoor crop category. They are also the most environmentally demanding — requiring CO₂, precise temperature management, and strong airflow alongside elevated light levels to convert photons into marketable fruit.

Tomatoes

Tomatoes are among the most light-responsive indoor crops. They are highly sensitive to PPFD increases when environmental conditions support higher photosynthetic rates.

Seedlings: 200–300 μmol/m²/s.

Production: 400–600 μmol/m²/s — the standard commercial range in modern greenhouse and vertical farm systems.

High-yield: 600–900 μmol/m²/s may improve fruit yield in high-technology operations where CO₂ (1000+ ppm), temperature, and humidity are closely controlled.

Spectrum note: Higher red-to-blue ratios during fruiting stages are associated with improved fruit quality and lycopene content in some research settings.

Cucumbers

Cucumbers are fast-growing vine crops with high photosynthetic capacity. Their rapid fruit development cycle means PPFD consistency throughout the fruiting period is critical to maintaining yield.

Seedlings: 200–300 μmol/m²/s.

Production: 350–550 μmol/m²/s for standard commercial cultivation.

Root zone temperature control is essential — root stress at high PPFD reduces uptake efficiency and limits yield response.

Peppers

Sweet and hot peppers require high light during fruit development to achieve full coloration, capsaicin content, and maximum yield.

Seedlings: 200–300 μmol/m²/s.

Production: 400–600 μmol/m²/s. High-yield programs up to 600–800 μmol/m²/s are viable when environmental management is in place.

Other Vine Crops

Eggplant, beans, and similar fruiting or pod crops follow PPFD patterns broadly similar to peppers and cucumbers. They benefit from moderate seedling PPFD and elevated production light levels once reproductive growth begins.

Table: Fruiting Crop PPFD Recommendations

8. PPFD Reference Chart for Common Indoor Farming Crops

Use this table as a quick operational reference when designing light programs, evaluating LED fixture specifications, or training production staff. All values in μmol/m²/s. Adjust based on your CO₂ environment, cultivar, and production goals.

9. Can Plants Receive Too Much PPFD?

Yes — and in indoor farming, over-illumination is a genuine and costly mistake. Understanding where productive light use ends is as important as knowing the minimum PPFD required to grow a crop.

Signs of Excessive Light

Plants exposed to PPFD above their physiological tolerance will display visible stress symptoms:

Leaf bleaching: Chloroplasts degrade under sustained photon overload, producing pale or white patches on leaf surfaces.

Tip burn: In lettuce especially, high PPFD disrupts calcium transport, causing necrotic tip burn on inner leaves.

Leaf curling: Leaves roll or cup inward as a photoprotective response to reduce exposed surface area.

Stunted growth: Chronic over-illumination can suppress growth, reduce leaf size, and accelerate senescence.

Light Saturation Point

Every crop has a light saturation point — the PPFD level at which photosynthesis reaches its maximum rate. Beyond this threshold, additional photons generate heat rather than additional photosynthesis.

Lettuce: saturates at approximately 250–300 μmol/m²/s under ambient CO₂.

Tomato: saturation point can reach 600–800 μmol/m²/s when CO₂ is elevated above 1000 ppm.

CO₂ enrichment raises the saturation point — high-PPFD strategies only make economic sense alongside active CO₂ management.

Once a crop reaches its light saturation point, increasing PPFD further may increase electricity costs without generating proportional yield gains.

Energy Efficiency Considerations

Lighting represents 30–60% of total operating costs in most vertical farm systems. Optimizing PPFD — not simply maximizing it — is a core profitability strategy.

Diminishing returns: the yield increase from 400 to 500 μmol/m²/s in a well-managed tomato system may be 15%; the increase from 600 to 700 μmol/m²/s without additional CO₂ and environmental controls may be 3–5%.

Photoperiod extension often delivers higher DLI at lower peak PPFD, reducing fixture heat load and electricity cost.

Dynamic light programs — adjusting PPFD by growth stage — typically deliver better energy ROI than fixed high-intensity schedules.

10. How to Measure PPFD Accurately in Vertical Farms

Knowing your target PPFD is only useful if you can verify that your system is actually delivering it. Accurate PPFD measurement at canopy level — not at the fixture — is essential for production consistency and lighting ROI.

Use a Quantum PAR Sensor

Always use a quantum PAR sensor calibrated specifically for the 400–700 nm PAR range. Consumer-grade lux meters and smartphone light apps are not suitable alternatives — they measure human-perceived brightness, not plant-available photons. For more detail, see our guide: How to Measure PPFD and Lux vs PAR vs PPFD vs DLI.

Measure at Canopy Height

PPFD values should be recorded at the top of the plant canopy, not at the light fixture. PPFD follows an inverse-square relationship with distance — a fixture producing 800 μmol/m²/s at 15 cm may deliver only 300–400 μmol/m²/s at 45 cm canopy depth.

Measure Multiple Points Per Layer

A single measurement point gives no information about uniformity. In multi-tier vertical farm systems, each layer must be measured independently at a minimum of nine points using a systematic grid pattern.

Track Average PPFD and Uniformity

Average canopy PPFD most closely predicts overall yield outcomes. Peak PPFD is useful for identifying hot spots and managing stress risk. Uniformity ratio (minimum PPFD divided by average PPFD) should exceed 0.75 for commercial production.

Table: PPFD Measurement Checklist

To confirm whether your lights meet crop requirements, learn how to measure PPFD grow light intensity at the canopy level using proper measurement methods.

11. Common PPFD Mistakes in Indoor Farming

Even experienced growers make lighting errors that reduce yield, increase energy costs, or cause crop quality problems. The following table summarizes the most frequent PPFD-related mistakes seen in commercial vertical farm and greenhouse operations.

12. Choosing LED Grow Lights Based on PPFD Targets

Once you have determined your crop’s target PPFD range, the next step is selecting a lighting system capable of delivering that photon dose consistently and economically across your growing area.

Not all LED grow lights are designed for the same applications. Key fixture parameters that affect delivered PPFD include:

Wattage and efficacy: Higher-wattage fixtures deliver more total photons, but efficacy (μmol/J) determines how efficiently electricity converts to light. High-efficacy fixtures reduce operating cost per μmol delivered.

Beam angle and distribution: Wide-angle fixtures improve uniformity across the canopy; narrow-angle fixtures concentrate photons for fruiting crop applications.

Mounting height: Fixtures mounted closer to the canopy deliver higher peak PPFD but may create hot spots. Taller mounting improves uniformity at the cost of average PPFD.

Dimming capability: 0–10V dimming allows operators to adjust PPFD output by growth stage without changing fixture position — a critical feature for multi-stage crop programs.

Spectrum flexibility: Adjustable spectrum fixtures allow growers to optimize red-to-blue ratios during vegetative vs. reproductive stages.

Multi-tier vertical farms require fixtures that deliver uniform PPFD across the entire layer width, with minimal hot spots between fixtures. Greenhouse and fruiting crop systems may require higher-output fixtures capable of sustained 400–900 μmol/m²/s output over full production cycles.

FY LIGHTING provides commercial LED grow lights engineered for vertical farms, plant factories, greenhouse production, and crop-specific lighting applications. Our fixtures are designed to deliver consistent, measurable PPFD at canopy level across multi-tier growing systems.

Continue Learning About Vertical Farm

If you are unsure which lighting metric to use, this comparison of Lux vs PAR vs PPFD vs DLI explains why PPFD and DLI are more useful than lux for plant growth.

Conclusion

PPFD is the cornerstone of any evidence-based indoor lighting program. But the answer to ‘how much PPFD do plants need?’ is never one-size-fits-all. The right number depends on what you are growing, how mature it is, and how well your environment supports photosynthesis.

The key principles from this guide:

Leafy greens and microgreens need lower PPFD — typically 100–300 μmol/m²/s — and are the most energy-efficient crops to illuminate indoors.

Herbs and strawberries need moderate to higher PPFD — 200–450 μmol/m²/s — with specific peaks during reproductive stages.

Fruiting crops need the highest PPFD — 350–900 μmol/m²/s — and deliver the best returns only when CO₂, temperature, and airflow are managed together.

Higher PPFD alone does not guarantee higher yield. Once a crop reaches its saturation point, additional photons waste electricity and can cause stress.

Commercial growers should design lighting systems around measured canopy PPFD and crop-specific targets — not fixture wattage alone.

Accurate measurement using a quantum PAR sensor at canopy height, across multiple grid points, is the only reliable way to verify that your lighting system is delivering what your crops need.

When PPFD targets are matched to crop requirements, adjusted by growth stage, and supported by the right CO₂ and environmental controls, indoor farming systems can achieve consistent, predictable, high-quality yields. That is the foundation of profitable, scalable controlled environment agriculture — and it starts with knowing exactly how much light your crops actually need.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

Q1: What PPFD is best for lettuce?

Most lettuce varieties grow well between 150–250 μmol/m²/s during production. At ambient CO₂ levels, lettuce saturates around 250–300 μmol/m²/s — running much higher than this increases electricity cost without proportional yield gain and may trigger tip burn in systems with poor airflow.

Q2: What PPFD do seedlings need?

Most crop seedlings establish well at 100–150 μmol/m²/s. Higher PPFD during the seedling stage can cause stress before root systems are strong enough to support rapid photosynthesis. Transition to full production PPFD gradually over 2–3 days after transplanting.

Q3: What PPFD do microgreens need?

Microgreens germinate best at 0–80 μmol/m²/s or in complete darkness. After cotyledons emerge, most species perform well at 120–250 μmol/m²/s. A brief boost to 200–250 μmol/m²/s in the final 48 hours before harvest can improve cotyledon density and pigmentation in colored varieties.

Q4: What PPFD is too high for plants?

The threshold varies by crop. For lettuce at ambient CO₂, above 300 μmol/m²/s may cause tip burn and wasted electricity. For tomatoes with CO₂ enrichment, productive use can extend to 600–900 μmol/m²/s. Signs of excessive PPFD include leaf bleaching, tip burn, leaf curling, and stunted growth. If you observe these symptoms, reduce PPFD first and check airflow.

Q5: Is 500 PPFD too much for lettuce?

Yes, in most cases. Lettuce typically saturates at 250–300 μmol/m²/s under standard CO₂ levels (~420 ppm). Running 500 μmol/m²/s without CO₂ enrichment and active airflow is likely to cause tip burn, increase leaf temperature, and add unnecessary electricity cost with minimal or no yield benefit.

Q6: How much PPFD do tomatoes need?

Tomatoes need 200–300 μmol/m²/s during the seedling stage and 400–600 μmol/m²/s for standard commercial production. In high-technology operations with CO₂ enrichment above 1000 ppm, some systems operate at 600–900 μmol/m²/s during peak fruiting. Tomatoes are among the most light-responsive indoor crops when environmental conditions fully support high-intensity production.

Q7: Should I increase PPFD during flowering?

Yes, generally. Most flowering and fruiting crops benefit from higher PPFD during reproductive stages. Strawberries, tomatoes, peppers, and cucumbers all show improved fruit set, fruit weight, and sugar content with elevated light during flowering and fruiting. Ensure CO₂, temperature, and airflow are managed alongside PPFD increases to avoid diminishing returns or stress.

Q8: How do I know if my plants are getting too much light?

Watch for these visible stress signals: bleached or pale patches on leaves, inward leaf curling or cupping, necrotic tip burn (especially in lettuce), stunted or slow growth despite adequate nutrition. If symptoms appear, reduce PPFD by 20–30% and evaluate airflow before making other changes. Confirm your PPFD with a quantum PAR sensor — visual estimates are unreliable.

Q9: What is the difference between PPFD and DLI?

PPFD measures instantaneous light intensity — how many photons hit the canopy per second right now, in μmol/m²/s. DLI measures the total photon dose over 24 hours, in mol/m²/day. DLI = PPFD × Photoperiod (hours) × 3,600 ÷ 1,000,000. PPFD tells you intensity; DLI tells you total daily dose. Both matter — a low PPFD run for many hours can deliver the same DLI as a higher PPFD run for fewer hours. See our DLI Guide for full calculations.

Q10: Can I use lux to estimate PPFD?

Only approximately, and only for a specific light source type. Lux measures human-perceived brightness; PPFD measures plant-relevant photons. Conversion factors exist for specific lamp types, but they do not apply universally across different LED spectra. For accurate production decisions, always use a dedicated quantum PAR sensor — lux values from consumer meters or smartphone apps are not reliable substitutes.

References and Technical Notes

The PPFD ranges presented in this guide are based on published controlled environment agriculture research, university extension resources, and widely referenced commercial production guidelines. Specific values may vary across cultivars, experimental conditions, and production systems.

Albright, L.D. et al. (2000). Controlled environment agriculture: Advanced texts in horticulture. Purdue University Press.

Bugbee, B. (2016). Toward an optimal spectral quality for plant growth and development: The importance of radiation capture. Acta Horticulturae, 1134, 1–12.

Kozai, T., Niu, G., & Takagaki, M. (2019). Plant Factory: An Indoor Vertical Farming System for Efficient Quality Food Production (2nd ed.). Elsevier Academic Press.

Both, A.J., et al. (2015). Radiant heat from energy screens and root zone heating on strawberry production. HortScience.

Apogee Instruments (2023). Quantum sensor accuracy and calibration technical documentation. apogee-instruments.com.

LI-COR Biosciences (2022). PAR measurement application notes. licor.com.

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